How To Treat High Monocytes

29.06.2023 Chukwudi Eze 0 Comments

How do I reduce my high monocyte count? – Treatment to reduce your high monocyte count includes:

Avoiding foods that cause inflammation like red meats, refined carbohydrates and fried foods. Exercising regularly. Limiting alcohol consumption. Managing current medical conditions. Treating infections with medications where medically appropriate

Contents

- 0.0.1 Should I be worried if my monocytes are high?

1 What medication is used for high monocytes?
2 Can high monocytes be temporary?
3 Can high monocytes be cured?
4 Does fasting reduce monocytes?
- - 4.0.1 Can diet cause high monocytes?
  - 4.0.2 Can fasting cause high monocytes?
5 Does high monocytes mean leukemia?
6 What viruses increase monocytes?
7 How long do monocytes last?
- - 7.0.1 Does COVID cause monocytes?
- 7.1 Does Covid 19 increase monocytes?
8 What is the most common cause of monocytosis?
9 Is it better to have high or low monocytes?

Should I be worried if my monocytes are high?

What causes monocytosis? – A high monocyte count is a potential sign of many different medical conditions. It’s often linked to infectious diseases like mononucleosis or an autoimmune disease like lupus. Some medications can cause monocytosis. It’s also linked to conditions such as blood disorders and certain cancers.

What medication is used for high monocytes?

3) Infliximab – Infliximab is an immune-suppressing drug prescribed for the treatment of inflammatory diseases such as Crohn’s, ulcerative colitis, and rheumatoid arthritis, Infliximab kills monocytes, which may help reduce inflammation in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases,

Can high monocytes be temporary?

Causes and Risk Factors – Monocytosis develops due to the overproduction of monocytes in the bone marrow, which can be caused by various medical issues. It can occur as a temporary situation, when the body needs monocytes, such as in a bacterial or viral infection.

It can also occur due to a genetic mutation that alters the body’s production of white blood cells.
Such a genetic mutation may affect only monocytes, or it could affect other white blood cells too.
Usually, these genetic changes are acquired from environmental or other factors and not inherited in families.

Causes of increased monocytes include:

Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases (including lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, and inflammatory bowel disease)
Bone marrow recovery
Some medications (including radiation therapy and cyokine therapy )
Chronic infections (including tuberculosis, malaria, and endocarditis )
Chronic stress
Due to splenectomy (removal of the spleen)
Heart attack
Myeloproliferative disorders
Viral infections (including COVID)

Can high monocytes be cured?

How do I reduce my high monocyte count? – Treatment to reduce your high monocyte count includes:

What is an alarming level of monocytes?

What is an alarming level of monocytes? – Doctors consider your level of monocytes high if it is above 10% or 800 per mm3. It may indicate an underlying cause that requires treatment.

Can vitamin C lower monocytes?

3) Vitamin C – In one study, people with low plasma vitamin C had less effective monocytes than those with normal vitamin C levels; furthermore, the first group’s monocytes normalized after they were given vitamin C supplements. In a cell study, monocytes exposed to vitamin C survived at a higher rate than those without vitamin C,

Does exercise lower monocytes?

Exercise increases circulating neutrophil and monocyte counts and reduces circulating lymphocyte count during recovery. This lymphopenia results from preferential egress of lymphocyte subtypes with potent effector functions.

What vitamins reduce monocytes?

Vitamin A Supplementation Reduces the Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 Intestinal Immune Response of Mexican Children.

Can stress cause high monocytes?

Neuroendocrine pathways signal to the immune system and increase the release of inflammatory myeloid cells from the bone marrow – As previously discussed, activation of the HPA axis and SNS relays stress interpretation from the brain to the immune system (bottom half of Figure 2 ).

The best example of this communication is the hardwiring of the SNS into primary and secondary lymphoid tissues, including bone marrow (BM), lymph nodes, and spleen (Felten et al., 1985 ). In this context, stress-induced SNS activation causes direct release of catecholamines into these immune organs.

This is pertinent because peripheral immune cells express receptors for NE, and stimulation of these receptors causes functional responses that influence their development, inflammatory phenotype, and migrational capacity (Bierhaus et al., 2003 ; Nance and Sanders, 2007 ; Grisanti et al., 2010 ).

In the context of prolonged or repeated activation of the SNS, such as with chronic stress, increased NE in the BM promotes the production and release of myeloid cells, including monocytes and granulocytes (Dhabhar et al., 2012 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ). The increased cycling of myeloid cells in the BM with stress shifts the phenotype of peripheral monocytes to be less mature and more “inflammatory” (Engler et al., 2004, 2005 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

These monocytes are termed “inflammatory” because they are able to traffic throughout the body and have enhanced capacity to release pro-inflammatory cytokines upon entering tissue and becoming effector cells. This is relevant because stress-induced trafficking of inflammatory monocytes contributes to the exacerbation of both mental and physical health conditions (Dutta et al., 2012 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Liezmann et al., 2012 ; Seifert et al., 2012 ; Wohleb et al., 2013, 2014a ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Numerous studies in mice and humans revealed that the SNS directly innervates the BM.
The most salient evidence of this is the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing (TH + ) axons observed throughout the BM (Afan et al., 1997 ; Nance and Sanders, 2007 ).
Moreover studies revealed that this innervation regulates immune function under homeostatic conditions and during various challenges, such as inflammation and stress (Felten et al., 1985 ; Nance and Sanders, 2007 ).

It is well-documented that various types of psychological stress enhance SNS signaling in the BM via dichotomous mechanisms depending on the duration of the stress. For example, acute stress enhances the turnover and release of NE within the BM (Tang et al., 1999 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ), while chronic stress causes structural alterations, characterized by increased innervation of TH + axons that corresponds with enhanced sympathetic signaling (Heidt et al., 2014 ).

These effects are also observed in other lymphoid tissues in which psychological stress caused re-organization and increased innervation by SNS inputs (Sloan et al., 2008 ).
Thus, the SNS acts as an integral relay of stress-signals from the brain to the immune system.
Related to the effects of stress on SNS activity, stress duration also has dichotomous effects on BM functions.

For example, acute and chronic stress-exposures have differential effects on the release, proliferation, and inflammatory capacity of progenitors in the BM that are related to the temporal dynamics of SNS signaling. With acute stress, SNS activation is associated with increased egress of leukocytes, especially myeloid cells (e.g., monocytes and granulocytes), from the BM that transiently accumulate in circulation (Engler et al., 2004 ; Dhabhar et al., 2012 ).

Similar to acute stress, chronic stress maintains increased leukocyte release from the BM.
However, the dichotomy of stress-duration is evident in the selective enhancement of myeloid but not lymphocyte proliferation in the BM.
For example, chronic stress caused sustained monocyte and granulocyte egress from the BM that resulted in substantial accumulation of these cells in circulation (Powell et al., 2013 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

These myeloid-enhancing effects of chronic stress are amplified by proliferation and expansion of myeloid progenitor cells in the BM that occurs concomitantly with reductions in lymphocytes and erythrocytes (Engler et al., 2004 ; Powell et al., 2013 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Moreover, this selective enhancement of myelopoiesis was dependent upon SNS activation.
For example, β-adrenergic receptor blockade with propranolol or selective β 3 -receptor antagonism prevented stress-induced enhancement of myelopoiesis in both RSD and chronic variable stress models (Wohleb et al., 2011 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Chronic variable stress, that is also often referred to as “chronic mild stress” and “chronic unpredictable stress,” is similar to RSD in that it repeatedly promotes increased neuroendocrine activation with reoccurring stress (Yalcin et al., 2005 ). Thus, enhanced production and release of monocytes and granulocytes in the BM was dependent upon SNS activity and resulted in substantial accumulation of these cells in circulation.

Studies in the RSD and chronic variable stress (CVS) models revealed key downstream signals provided by chemokines and growth factors that mediate SNS-dependent enhancement of myelopoiesis. With the CVS model, reduced CXCL12 signaling contributed to increased egress of myeloid cells from the BM (Heidt et al., 2014 ).

This is consistent with the known function of CXCL12 to promote the retention of leukocytes (Katayama et al., 2006 ). Moreover, CXCL12 expression in BM-stromal cells was reduced by stress and rescued by β 3 -adrenergic blockade (Heidt et al., 2014 ). Thus, SNS-dependent reduction in stromal CXCL12 expression is a key regulator in the expansion of BM progenitors during chronic stress.

Related to this, studies in the RSD model revealed that increased granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) signaling mediates selective enhancement of myeloid expansion within the BM (Powell et al., 2013 ).
It is relevant to note that myeloid cells share a common progenitor called a granulocyte-macropahge colony forming unit (GM-CFU) that also shares the common stimulatory growth factor, GM-CSF.

Thus, increased expansion of granulocytes and monocytes in the BM following stress requires proliferation of GM-CFUs that is enhanced by GM-CSF signaling (Hamilton and Achuthan, 2013 ). In support of this notion, RSD increased BM GM-CSF expression in an exposure-dependent manner that temporally correlated with enhancement of myelopoiesis following 3 and 6 cycles of social defeat (Engler et al., 2005 ). Stress-induced brain-to-immune activation leads to enhanced myelopoiesis and monocyte trafficking, SNS and HPA activation following stress exposure significantly shifts immune responses through increased myelopoiesis mediated by increased GM-CSF and reduced CXCL12 expression.

Prolonged stress exposure promotes egress of primed and GC-insensitive monocytes (Ly6C hi /CCR2 hi /CX 3 CR1 lo ) from the bone marrow into circulation. These monocytes have an increased capacity to traffic throughout the body and promote inflammation. Activation of the SNS with prolonged stress not only regulates the production and release of myeloid cells but also enhances their pro-inflammatory profile.

For example, numerous studies in humans reveal that chronic stress caused substantial enhancement of monocytic inflammatory potential. This is evidenced by exaggerated responses to ex vivo innate immune challenge (Miller et al., 2002 ; Rohleder et al., 2009 ; Cohen et al., 2012 ; Rohleder, 2012 ; Powell et al., 2013 ).

The notion of stress-induced inflammation is best encapsulated in works published by Steve Cole, Gregory Miller, and colleagues, where they describe it as a “conserved transcriptional response to adversity” (Cole et al., 2011 ; Powell et al., 2013 ; Miller et al., 2014 ). These reports demonstrate that the “transcriptional fingerprint” associated with chronic stress is mainly characterized by up-regulation of pro-inflammatory transcription control pathways, particularly the NF-κB pathway (Miller et al., 2008, 2014 ; Cole et al., 2011, 2012 ).

Moreover, chronic stress is associated with down-regulation of transcriptional activity mediated by the glucocorticoid (GC) receptor, resulting in functional glucocorticoid insensitivity and loss of anti-inflammatory feedback associated with GC signaling (Miller et al., 2002 ; Rohleder et al., 2009 ; Cohen et al., 2012 ; Rohleder, 2012 ).

These SNS-mediated pro-inflammatory effects of stress are recapitulated in rodent models.
For example, myeloid cells isolated from RSD-exposed mice exhibited a similar pro-inflammatory “transcriptional fingerprint” as humans exposed to chronic stress (Powell et al., 2013 ).
Also similar to humans, RSD enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine production following innate immune challenge (Avitsur et al., 2001, 2002, 2003 ; Stark et al., 2001, 2002 ; Quan et al., 2003 ; Bailey et al., 2004 ; Engler et al., 2005, 2008 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ).

In these studies, increased cytokine production in response to immune challenge was associated with the development of GC-insensitivity in peripheral myeloid cells, in which they were resistant to apoptosis following treatment with high levels of GCs in ex vivo cultures.

These data indicate that pro-inflammatory effects of chronic stress in humans are recapitulated with RSD.
A relatively unappreciated notion is that many of the pro-inflammatory effects of chronic stress are simply a function of enhanced myelopoiesis.
For example, in both humans and rodents, enhanced myelopoiesis during prolonged stress results in selective accumulation of immature monocytes in the periphery (Engler et al., 2004 ; Wohleb et al., 2011 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ) that was directly linked to increased cycling and release of monocytes in the BM (Engler et al., 2004 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

The immature monocytes released during stress represent an inflammatory subset that are identified as Ly6C hi in mice and as CD14 + /CD16 − in humans (Geissmann et al., 2003 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ). They are considered immature because they are functional precursors of the matured and immunoregulatory Ly6C lo or CD14 − subset (Murray and Wynn, 2011 ; Yona et al., 2013 ).

Moreover, these cells are termed “pro-inflammatory” because they readily traffic to inflamed tissue and have robust capacity to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines once they enter tissue and become effector cells (Serbina and Pamer, 2006 ).
The immature nature of these monocytes is pertinent as it may also account for the development of GC-insensitivity following prolonged stress.

For example, immature BM monocytes are functionally GC-insensitive (Fitting et al., 2004 ; Engler et al., 2005 ). Thus, accumulation of these innately GC-insensitive immature monocytes corresponds with the development of GC-insensitivity during chronic stress.

In support of these points, blockade of stress-induced myelopoiesis by β-adrenergic antagonism prevented accumulation of Ly6C hi monocytes (Hanke et al., 2012 ; Powell et al., 2013 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ), and this was associated with prevention of GC-insensitivity (Hanke et al., 2012 ) and reversal of pro-inflammatory transcriptional profiles following RSD (Powell et al., 2013 ).

However, priming of splenic macrophages during RSD involves additional priming events associated with TLR ligation (Bailey et al., 2006, 2007, 2011 ). Taken together, SNS-dependent enhancement of myelopoiesis underlies peripheral inflammation following chronic stress via the accumulation of innately pro-inflammatory and GC-insensitive immature monocytes.

Another key characteristic of the pro-inflammatory monocyte phenotype associated with prolonged stress is their enhanced capacity to traffic and promote pro-inflammatory signaling throughout the body. For example, several studies using RSD demonstrated increased trafficking of Ly6C hi monocytes to peripheral tissues that was associated with exaggerated cytokine responses (Wohleb et al., 2011, 2012 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ) and the exacerbation of inflammatory conditions (Bailey et al., 2009a, b ; Curry et al., 2010 ; Dong-Newsom et al., 2010 ; Mays et al., 2010 ; Tarr et al., 2012 ).

This is similar to work in the CVS paradigm, where prolonged stress increased trafficking of Ly6C hi inflammatory monocytes that promoted inflammation and exacerbated pathology of vascular plaques of ApoE −/− mice (Heidt et al., 2014 ). Thus, prolonged stress exposure substantially increased circulating Ly6C hi monocytes that trafficked to tissue, promoted inflammation, and exacerbated pathology.

It is important to note that peripheral inflammation and exacerbated pathology were reversible by the blockade of SNS-enhancement of myelopoiesis.
For example, β 3 -adrenergic receptor antagonism attenuated monocyte trafficking and prevented the exacerbation of vascular plaques in ApoE −/− mice exposed to CVS (Heidt et al., 2014 ).

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Similarly, propranolol prevented RSD-induced monocyte accumulation in BM, circulation, spleen, and brain that corresponded with reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine production in these tissues (Wohleb et al., 2011 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ). As summarized in Figure 3, increased trafficking of inflammatory monocytes following prolonged stress-exposure is due to SNS-mediated enhancement of myelopoiesis that results in the release of immature monocytes from the BM.

What vitamin deficiency causes high monocytes?

Taken together, these results indicate that vitamin D deficiency in healthy individuals will lead to a more pro-inflammatory monocyte phenotype with higher MPA and increased EC adhesion.

What cancers have high monocytes?

Types of CMML – The World Health Organisation (WHO) has split CMML into 3 types. They are called type 0, type 1 and type 2. How many abnormal myeloid cells (blasts) you have in your blood and bone marrow samples tells your doctor your type of CMML. Doctors describe the number of blast cells as a percentage. This is the number of blast cells in every 100 white cells.

Type 0 CMML means you have less than 2% blast cells in your blood and less than 5% blast cells in your bone marrow.
Type 1 CMML means you have 2-4% blast cells in your blood or 5-9% blasts in your bone marrow. Some people have both.
Type 2 CMML means you have 5-19% blast cells in your blood and 10-19% in your bone marrow.

Having Auer rods in the samples means you have type 2 CMML. Auer rods are material inside the CMML cells that look like long needles. They can only be seen under the microscope. And Auer rods are only seen inside abnormal cells. Knowing your type of CMML, along with other factors, helps your doctor to decide on your risk group. And can help them decide on the best treatment for you.

Does fasting reduce monocytes?

Mount Sinai study shows fasting can trigger a negative effect on fighting infection on a cellular level in mouse models –

New York, NY (February 23, 2023)

Fasting may be detrimental to fighting off infection, and could lead to an increased risk of heart disease, according to a new study by the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. The research, which focused on mouse models, is among the first to show that skipping meals triggers a response in the brain that negatively affects immune cells.

The results that focus on breakfast were published in the February 23 issue of Immunity, and could lead to a better understanding of how chronic fasting may affect the body long term.
There is a growing awareness that fasting is healthy, and there is indeed abundant evidence for the benefits of fasting.

Our study provides a word of caution as it suggests that there may also be a cost to fasting that carries a health risk,” says lead author Filip Swirski, PhD, Director of the Cardiovascular Research Institute at Icahn Mount Sinai. “This is a mechanistic study delving into some of the fundamental biology relevant to fasting.

The study shows that there is a conversation between the nervous and immune systems.” Researchers aimed to better understand how fasting — from a relatively short fast of only a few hours to a more severe fast of 24 hours — affects the immune system. They analyzed two groups of mice. One group ate breakfast right after waking up (breakfast is their largest meal of the day), and the other group had no breakfast.

Researchers collected blood samples in both groups when mice woke up (baseline), then four hours later, and eight hours later. When examining the blood work, researchers noticed a distinct difference in the fasting group. Specifically, the researchers saw a difference in the number of monocytes, which are white blood cells that are made in the bone marrow and travel through the body, where they play many critical roles, from fighting infections, to heart disease, to cancer.

At baseline, all mice had the same amount of monocytes. But after four hours, monocytes in mice from the fasting group were dramatically affected. Researchers found 90 percent of these cells disappeared from the bloodstream, and the number further declined at eight hours. Meanwhile monocytes in the non-fasting group were unaffected.

In fasting mice, researchers discovered the monocytes traveled back to the bone marrow to hibernate. Concurrently, production of new cells in the bone marrow diminished. The monocytes in the bone marrow—which typically have a short lifespan—significantly changed.

They survived longer as a consequence of staying in the bone marrow, and aged differently than the monocytes that stayed in the blood. The researchers continued to fast mice for up to 24 hours, and then reintroduced food. The cells hiding in the bone marrow surged back into the bloodstream within a few hours.

This surge led to heightened level of inflammation. Instead of protecting against infection, these altered monocytes were more inflammatory, making the body less resistant to fighting infection. This study is among the first to make the connection between the brain and these immune cells during fasting.

Researchers found that specific regions in the brain controlled the monocyte response during fasting. This study demonstrated that fasting elicits a stress response in the brain—that’s what makes people “hangry” (feeling hungry and angry) —and this instantly triggers a large-scale migration of these white blood cells from the blood to the bone marrow, and then back to the bloodstream shortly after food is reintroduced.

Dr. Swirski emphasized that while there is also evidence of the metabolic benefits of fasting, this new study is a useful advance in the full understanding of the body’s mechanisms. “The study shows that, on the one hand, fasting reduces the number of circulating monocytes, which one might think is a good thing, as these cells are important components of inflammation.

On the other hand, reintroduction of food creates a surge of monocytes flooding back to the blood, which can be problematic.
Fasting, therefore regulates this pool in ways that are not always beneficial to the body’s capacity to respond to a challenge such as an infection,” explains Dr. Swirski.
Because these cells are so important to other diseases like heart disease or cancer, understanding how their function is controlled is critical.” This study was funded by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Cure Alzheimer”s Fund.

Figure: The effect of fasting on immunity Description : The image shows that during fasting a specific region in the brain controls redistribution of monocytes in the blood with consequences on response to infection upon refeeding. About the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai is internationally renowned for its outstanding research, educational, and clinical care programs.

It is the sole academic partner for the eight member hospitals of the Mount Sinai Health System, one of the largest academic health systems in the United States, providing care to a large and diverse patient population. Ranked No.14 nationwide in National Institutes of Health funding and in the 99th percentile in research dollars per investigator according to the Association of American Medical Colleges, Icahn Mount Sinai has a talented, productive, and successful faculty.

More than 3,000 full-time scientists, educators, and clinicians work within and across 34 academic departments and 44 multidisciplinary institutes, a structure that facilitates tremendous collaboration and synergy. Our emphasis on translational research and therapeutics is evident in such diverse areas as genomics/big data, virology, neuroscience, cardiology, geriatrics, and gastrointestinal and liver diseases.

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Can diet cause high monocytes?

The results may help explain how high-fat diets trigger inflammation, which can contribute to the development of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and other complications in individuals with obesity. An invasion of inflammatory immune cells, called monocytes, into fat tissue is a hallmark of obesity, but what leads to this harmful phenomenon is unclear.

Many immune cells, including monocytes, are produced in the bone marrow, which is very sensitive to environmental changes.
Scientists have already shown that fat cells in the bone marrow rapidly expand in response to a high-fat diet.
We wanted to know if bone marrow tissue was an early responder to a high-fat diet that could serve as a precursor to the inflammation observed in obesity,” says senior author Amira Klip, Senior Scientist in Cell Biology at SickKids, and Professor in the Departments of Paediatrics, Biochemistry, and Physiology at the University of Toronto, Canada.

“Do high-fat diet-induced changes in the bone marrow lead to the production of the inflammatory monocytes that invade fat tissue in people with obesity?” Klip and colleagues found that mice fed a high-fat diet begin to experience metabolic disturbances throughout their body and in the bone marrow within three weeks.

Fat cells in the bone marrow multiply and take on white fat cell characteristics.
Metabolic changes in the monocytes at the bone marrow cells also occur – they use less oxygen to break down sugar into energy, and lactic acid builds up in the cells and surrounding fluid.
The team also found that mitochondria, cellular factories that break down sugar into energy, break apart into fragments within the monocytes and become less efficient.

This process of mitochondrial fragmentation is associated with insulin resistance. Over several weeks, the number of monocytes in the bone marrow shifts to include less of a monocyte called Ly6C low to more of a monocyte called Ly6C high, the same type of monocyte that invades fat tissue in people with obesity.

This accumulation of Ly6C high monocytes in the bone marrow starts before monocytes build up in fat tissue in the rest of the body to become inflammatory macrophages – the mature form of monocytes. “These results show that high-fat diets can cause remodelling in bone marrow fat cells that disrupt the normal balance of monocytes, and can subsequently lead to invasive Ly6C high monocytes spilling into the body,” continues Klip.

The team further demonstrated that white fat tissue can spur these changes in experiments using cell samples from mice fed a high-fat diet. They also found that brown fat tissue, which is more abundant in leaner people, can cause a shift towards the non-invasive Ly6C low monocytes.

Our study reveals how high-fat diets trigger a cascade of inflammation in the body that involves the bone marrow,” concludes Klip.
More research is needed to understand this process further and find out if there are ways to prevent or reverse this process.
It will also be important to know if the bone marrow is also an early responder to obesity in humans.

Learning more could lead to new therapies for treating obesity and preventing complications such as diabetes.”

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Can fasting cause high monocytes?

Discussion – This is the first study to report that within the heterogeneous group of mononuclear cells, lymphocytes were less sensitive to apoptosis and autophagy than monocytes during fasting and exercise conditions, although circulating apoptotic and autophagic lymphocyte concentrations increased after exercise, while monocytes did not.

Fasting increased circulating autophagic monocyte concentrations, but not lymphocytes.
Interestingly, when autophagy measured by LC3BII/I was increased during fasting, a fewer number of circulating cells were autophagic within the mononuclear cell population, which could be attributed to the monocyte subgroup.

The lymphocytes/monocytes ratios measured by flow cytometry were validated by Western blotting, because we found that the CD3/CD14 ratios in the mononuclear cell protein extracts were strongly correlated with the gated cell number ratios. Also, increased autophagy was concomitantly detected with increased apoptosis by flow cytometry and Western blot for total mononuclear cells.

Among the different types of self-consumption, autophagy plays an important role in regulating apoptosis, especially after stress-inducing interventions such as fasting or acute exercise, It has recently been demonstrated as a critical molecular process in promoting cell survival against apoptosis,

Within the mononuclear cell population in a fed condition, monocytes are on average not only more affected by apoptosis than lymphocytes (63.1 vs.2.4%, respectively, compare, but also by autophagy (16.2% vs.0.13%, respectively). In general, autophagy contributes to a healthy balance of lymphocyte survival and homeostasis and is essential for monocyte-macrophage differentiation,

Monocytes were also shown to be more autophagic than lymphocytes in healthy control participants and in patients with systemic diseases such as lupus erythematosus or active tuberculosis,
The direct comparison of the amount of autophagy-induction between cell subtypes during different stress interventions in the healthy, however, has not yet been done.

This information would be important, especially when thinking of fasting and exercise as possible health promoting interventions. Interestingly, our flow cytometry data showed that also during fasting the more mononuclear cells were apoptotic, the more were also autophagic at the same time and apoptosis was on average higher than autophagy (12.3% vs.4.8%, respectively).

Split by mononuclear cell subgroup, lymphocytes were almost not affected by the two types of self-consumption (apoptosis: 1.6% vs.
Autophagy: 0.27%), while monocytes showed higher values (apoptosis: 69.2% vs.
Autophagy: 26.4%).
One would have anticipated a fasting-induced cytoprotective mechanism of autophagy, but comparing percentages between the two types of self-consumption, it rather seemed that fasting-induced early and mid-phase apoptosis overcame autophagy, both in lymphocytes and monocytes.

The high amount of apoptosis could have resulted in the subversion of cytoprotective mechanisms, including autophagy, Fasting has also been hypothesized as a priming tool against viral infection based on its stimulating effect on autophagy in immune cells,

Recently, fasting reduced the number of circulating pro-inflammatory monocytes due to cell accumulation in the bone marrow and the loss of a large portion of immune cells in the gut was due to apoptosis,
Our intervention of 14–15 h time-restricted fasting did not affect absolute circulating numbers of either lymphocytes or monocytes and enhanced only monocyte autophagy compared to the fed condition—possibly a reaction to make monocytes less inflammatory,

The amount of autophagy can vary between cells, even within a homogenous cell population, Our results indicate a negative relationship between the amount of autophagy measured by LC3BII/I and circulating autophagic mononuclear cell numbers, which could indicate more autophagy per single mononuclear cell, possibly representing a general mechanism for context-specific regulation of cell fate by autophagy,

This association could not be reproduced in the lymphocyte, but only in the monocyte subgroup, both by flow cytometry gating for LC3B + cell subgroups and Western blot analyses for CD3, CD14, and LC3BII/I.
This validated that the amount of autophagy was linked to the amount of monocytes present, but still did not answer if the amount of autophagy per single monocyte depended on the circulating number of autophagic monocytes.

Therefore, further analyses in only the monocyte subgroup—possibly by investigating the amount of autophagy within a single monocyte using different monocyte concentrations—are warranted. Importantly, we validated the lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratios analyzed by flow cytometry by the CD3-to-CD14 ratios detected by Western blot in the fasting condition.

The strong association between the two different methodologies reassured that we were analyzing similar cellular compositions.
We also showed a negative relationship between the number of Annexin V + or LC3B + mononuclear cells/µl analyzed by flow cytometry and mononuclear cell LC3BII/I or Bcl-2 assessed by Western blot in the fasting condition, respectively.

These results suggest a link between the two different methodologies. Acute exercise promotes the immediate mobilization and redistribution of effector lymphocytes to e.g. the upper respiratory tract aiming at fighting pathogens and enhancing immune surveillance,

Considering the normally occurring lymphocytosis post-acute exercise, as also seen in our study, it is interesting that on average only 0.11% of circulating lymphocytes were autophagic, while 11.8% of monocytes showed autophagy-induction. Especially when considering that the increase in lymphocyte concentrations post-exercise favors the Th1-mediated immune response, protecting against infections by intracellular microorganisms,

A similar picture arises when looking at post-exercise apoptosis, where only 1.7% of lymphocytes and 50.3% of monocytes are apoptotic. The necessity of autophagy and apoptosis for an acute exercise-induced immune response should be further investigated, especially considering cellular protection against viral infection by different T-cell subgroups.

A limitation of the current study is the low number of participants and the fact that only 5 out of 8 participants were willing to do the exhaustive exercise test. Furthermore, our Western blotting analyses do not directly show from which mononuclear cell subgroup the Bcl-2, LC3B, and p62 signals are derived.

Ideally, one would have first sorted the subpopulations of living mononuclear cells into lymphocytes and monocytes and then analyzed them separately. Nevertheless, our correlation analysis suggests an association between the LC3B signal and the monocyte subgroup.

Does high monocytes mean leukemia?

The most common sign of chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) is having too many monocytes (seen on a blood test). Having too many monocytes also causes many of the symptoms of CMML. These monocytes can settle in the spleen or liver, enlarging these organs.

A shortage of red blood cells (anemia) can lead to feeling very tired, with shortness of breath and pale skin. Not having enough normal white blood cells (leukopenia) can lead to frequent or severe infections, A shortage of blood platelets (thrombocytopenia) can lead to easy bruising and bleeding. Some people notice frequent or severe nosebleeds or bleeding from their gums.

Other symptoms can include weight loss, fever, and loss of appetite. Of course, many of these problems are caused more often by something other than cancer. If you’re having symptoms, you should see a doctor so a cause can be found.

What viruses increase monocytes?

Abstract – Viruses manipulate cell biology to utilize monocytes/macrophages as vessels for dissemination, long-term persistence within tissues and virus replication. Viruses enter cells through endocytosis, phagocytosis, macropinocytosis or membrane fusion.

These processes play important roles in the mechanisms contributing to the pathogenesis of these agents and in establishing viral genome persistence and latency. Upon viral infection, monocytes respond with an elevated expression of proinflammatory signalling molecules and antiviral responses, as is shown in the case of the influenza, Chikungunya, human herpes and Zika viruses.

Human immunodeficiency virus initiates acute inflammation on site during the early stages of infection but there is a shift of M1 to M2 at the later stages of infection. Cytomegalovirus creates a balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory processes by inducing a specific phenotype within the M1/M2 continuum.

Despite facilitating inflammation, infected macrophages generally display abolished apoptosis and restricted cytopathic effect, which sustains the virus production. The majority of viruses discussed in this review employ monocytes/macrophages as a repository but certain viruses use these cells for productive replication.

This review focuses on viral adaptations to enter monocytes/macrophages, immune escape, reprogramming of infected cells and the response of the host cells. Keywords: monocyte/macrophage, virus, persistence, reservoir, cell response, inflammation, cancer

How long do monocytes last?

We found that classical monocytes have a very short circulating lifespan (mean 1.0 ± 0.26 days ). Most cells leave the circulation or die, while the remaining cells transition to intermediate monocytes. Intermediate monocytes have a longer lifespan (mean 4.3 ± 0.36 days) and all transition to non-classical monocytes.

Does COVID cause monocytes?

CD169 + monocytes in COVID-19 convalescents – CD169, a type I interferon-inducible receptor, is expressed on monocytes and macrophages ( 26 – 28 ). CD169 + monocytes and macrophages have been thought to be important players in inflammatory response of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases ( 29 – 31 ).

Monocytes from COVID-19 patients had increased CD169 levels during acute SARS-CoV2 infection and monocyte CD169 was identified as a biomarker in early COVID-19 infection ( 27 ).
To further investigate difference in monocyte activation among the groups, we analyzed CD169 expression in monocytes.
When monocytes were stratified based on CD169 expression, the percentage of CD169 + monocytes were significantly higher in the PG and RG than in the NG ( Figure 4A ).

Also, CD169 + monocyte numbers were significantly increased in the PG and RG, compared to NG ( Figure 4B ). The MFI of CD169 on classical monocytes did not differ among the groups. However, CD169 MFI of intermediate and non-classical monocytes in PG and RG was significantly higher than those in NG ( Figure 4C ).

Interestingly, when the percentage of CD169 + cells was examined in the three groups in each respective monocyte population, no difference was observed in classical monocytes ( Figure 4D ).
Significant increases in CD169 + percentages were observed in intermediate and non-classical monocytes, only between RG and NG, with no difference between PG and NG, or PG and RG observed ( Figures 4E–G ).

These data indicate that circulating monocytes from COVID-19 convalescents remain increased and display a higher CD169 expression. Characterization of circulating CD169 + monocytes in NG, RG, and PG groups. Representative histogram and dot plot of CD169 + /CD14 + monocytes in NG, RG, and PG groups. Percentage of total CD169 + monocytes from total CD14 + monocytes is shown above the gate (B). Total CD169 + monocyte percentage from CD45 + cells, (C) CD169 + monocyte, (D) MFI of CD169 on monocyte subsets in NG, RG, and PG. The percentage of CD169 + cells identified in (E) classical monocytes, (F) intermediate monocytes, and (G) non-classical monocytes within NG, RG, and PG groups. Mann-Whitney-U Test *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001, ns, non-significant.

Does Covid 19 increase monocytes?

The Role of Lung Macrophages in Viral Respiratory Infections – As described above, the lung is at permanent risk of infection by several pathogens, amongst them viruses such as rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus and coronavirus.

Despite their obvious relevance, investigation of human lung MNPs during respiratory infections has been limited so far and most of our knowledge comes from animal models.
For instance, Schneider et al.
Showed that AM-depleted WT mice infected with influenza A virus had impaired gas exchange and fatal hypoxia ( 92 ).

Similar results were obtained in pigs which, after AM depletion by dichloromethlyene diphosphonate, were infected with seasonal human H1N1 influenza virus resulting in 40% mortality rate and increased suffering from severe respiratory signs, whereas infected control pigs showed less severe symptoms with no mortality ( 93 ).

Notably, various viruses, including Influenza, Chikungunya, human herpes and Zika virus, have been shown to utilize monocytes and macrophages as vessels for virus replication, dissemination, or long-term persistence within tissues.
They enter the cells through endocytosis, phagocytosis, macropinocytosis or membrane fusion and induce elevated expression of proinflammatory signaling and antiviral molecules ( 94 – 99 ).

Direct infection of macrophages with SARS-CoV has also been shown, which, however, did not lead to dissemination or virus amplification but rather to an impaired type I interferon (IFN) response potentially worsening disease outcome ( 100 ). Upon viral infection, AMs produce high levels of cellular mediators, including IL-1β, CCL3, CCL7 and CCL2, also known as monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1), which rapidly recruits CCR2-expressing bone marrow-derived monocytes into the lung.

Furthermore, AMs are the main producers of type I IFN to trigger an antiviral response in influenza infection ( 101, 102 ).
Of note, type I IFN production by AMs was higher than by plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), coined as the natural “IFN producing cells”, in response to virus, indicating that pDCs may play a subordinate role in the defense against viral infections in the lung ( 102 ).

Moreover, alveolar epithelial cells also did not produce any type I IFN in response to influenza, further stressing the key role of AMs ( 103 ). Type I IFNs can signal autocrine and paracrine resulting in the activation of antiviral transcriptional programs including the transcription of ISG such as ISG15, IFIT1 and STAT2, which can suppress viral replication ( 104, 105 ).

Interestingly, not all virus infections trigger an increased type I IFN response. For instance, when human AMs were infected with coronavirus strain 229E (HCoV-299E), they secreted increased amounts of TNF, CCL5 and CCL4 (MIP-1β), causing inflammation, but IFN-β levels remained unchanged ( 106 ). Viral infection triggers the migration of circulating monocytes to the lung guided by pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as CCL2 and CCL3, increasing the number of defending mononuclear phagocytes and enhancing inflammation ( 79 ).

This is a necessary defense response, since viruses such as influenza can either reduce the numbers of resident AMs dramatically or impair their phenotype. When BALB/c mice were infected with influenza, 90% of resident AMs were lost in the first week after infection ( 107 ).

This, however, was strain specific, since C57B1/6 mice did not show loss of AMs but rather an impaired phenotype. Nevertheless, both consequences were driven by IFN-γ and resulted in increased susceptibility to bacterial superinfections leading to significant body weight loss and mortality. Furthermore, a recent study by Neupane et al.

showed that crawling of AMs, which is critical for AM function, was impaired after influenza infection. Again, this impairment was mediated by the IFN-γ pathway and resulted in increased risk for bacterial superinfections ( 54 ).

What is the most common cause of monocytosis?

A. What is the differential diagnosis for this problem? – The differential diagnosis is broad, as monocytosis is not representative of a specific condition. It is often a marker of chronic inflammation, either as a result of infection, autoimmune disease, blood born malignancy or possibly even a lipid storage disease.

Common infections causing monocytosis include tuberculosis, subacute bacterial endocarditis, syphilis, protozoal or rickettsial disease. Common autoimmune diseases in the differential include SLE, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Malignancy, especially monocytic leukemia, should always be investigated in a patient with monocytosis and appropriate symptom features.

Monocytosis can also develop during the recovery phase of an acute infection, recovery from granulocytosis, or be representative of extremely rare pediatric conditions, such as congenital agranulocytosis. Finally, monocytosis exists in a chronic, poorly defined idiopathic condition which is a diagnosis of exclusion.

You might be interested: Mediators Of Inflammation

Can anxiety cause high monocytes?

The best example of this communication is the hardwiring of the SNS into primary and secondary lymphoid tissues, including bone marrow (BM), lymph nodes, and spleen (Felten et al., 1985 ).
In this context, stress-induced SNS activation causes direct release of catecholamines into these immune organs.

In the context of prolonged or repeated activation of the SNS, such as with chronic stress, increased NE in the BM promotes the production and release of myeloid cells, including monocytes and granulocytes (Dhabhar et al., 2012 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ).
The increased cycling of myeloid cells in the BM with stress shifts the phenotype of peripheral monocytes to be less mature and more “inflammatory” (Engler et al., 2004, 2005 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Numerous studies in mice and humans revealed that the SNS directly innervates the BM.
The most salient evidence of this is the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing (TH + ) axons observed throughout the BM (Afan et al., 1997 ; Nance and Sanders, 2007 ).
Moreover studies revealed that this innervation regulates immune function under homeostatic conditions and during various challenges, such as inflammation and stress (Felten et al., 1985 ; Nance and Sanders, 2007 ).

These effects are also observed in other lymphoid tissues in which psychological stress caused re-organization and increased innervation by SNS inputs (Sloan et al., 2008 ). Thus, the SNS acts as an integral relay of stress-signals from the brain to the immune system. Related to the effects of stress on SNS activity, stress duration also has dichotomous effects on BM functions.

Similar to acute stress, chronic stress maintains increased leukocyte release from the BM. However, the dichotomy of stress-duration is evident in the selective enhancement of myeloid but not lymphocyte proliferation in the BM. For example, chronic stress caused sustained monocyte and granulocyte egress from the BM that resulted in substantial accumulation of these cells in circulation (Powell et al., 2013 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Moreover, this selective enhancement of myelopoiesis was dependent upon SNS activation. For example, β-adrenergic receptor blockade with propranolol or selective β 3 -receptor antagonism prevented stress-induced enhancement of myelopoiesis in both RSD and chronic variable stress models (Wohleb et al., 2011 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Related to this, studies in the RSD model revealed that increased granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) signaling mediates selective enhancement of myeloid expansion within the BM (Powell et al., 2013 ). It is relevant to note that myeloid cells share a common progenitor called a granulocyte-macropahge colony forming unit (GM-CFU) that also shares the common stimulatory growth factor, GM-CSF.

Prolonged stress exposure promotes egress of primed and GC-insensitive monocytes (Ly6C hi /CCR2 hi /CX 3 CR1 lo ) from the bone marrow into circulation. These monocytes have an increased capacity to traffic throughout the body and promote inflammation. Activation of the SNS with prolonged stress not only regulates the production and release of myeloid cells but also enhances their pro-inflammatory profile.

These SNS-mediated pro-inflammatory effects of stress are recapitulated in rodent models.
For example, myeloid cells isolated from RSD-exposed mice exhibited a similar pro-inflammatory “transcriptional fingerprint” as humans exposed to chronic stress (Powell et al., 2013 ).
Also similar to humans, RSD enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine production following innate immune challenge (Avitsur et al., 2001, 2002, 2003 ; Stark et al., 2001, 2002 ; Quan et al., 2003 ; Bailey et al., 2004 ; Engler et al., 2005, 2008 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ).

These data indicate that pro-inflammatory effects of chronic stress in humans are recapitulated with RSD. A relatively unappreciated notion is that many of the pro-inflammatory effects of chronic stress are simply a function of enhanced myelopoiesis. For example, in both humans and rodents, enhanced myelopoiesis during prolonged stress results in selective accumulation of immature monocytes in the periphery (Engler et al., 2004 ; Wohleb et al., 2011 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ) that was directly linked to increased cycling and release of monocytes in the BM (Engler et al., 2004 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ; Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Moreover, these cells are termed “pro-inflammatory” because they readily traffic to inflamed tissue and have robust capacity to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines once they enter tissue and become effector cells (Serbina and Pamer, 2006 ).
The immature nature of these monocytes is pertinent as it may also account for the development of GC-insensitivity following prolonged stress.

Another key characteristic of the pro-inflammatory monocyte phenotype associated with prolonged stress is their enhanced capacity to traffic and promote pro-inflammatory signaling throughout the body.
For example, several studies using RSD demonstrated increased trafficking of Ly6C hi monocytes to peripheral tissues that was associated with exaggerated cytokine responses (Wohleb et al., 2011, 2012 ; Hanke et al., 2012 ) and the exacerbation of inflammatory conditions (Bailey et al., 2009a, b ; Curry et al., 2010 ; Dong-Newsom et al., 2010 ; Mays et al., 2010 ; Tarr et al., 2012 ).

It is important to note that peripheral inflammation and exacerbated pathology were reversible by the blockade of SNS-enhancement of myelopoiesis. For example, β 3 -adrenergic receptor antagonism attenuated monocyte trafficking and prevented the exacerbation of vascular plaques in ApoE −/− mice exposed to CVS (Heidt et al., 2014 ).

Can high monocytes mean leukemia?

How high are monocytes in leukemia?

Features of chronic myelomonocytic leukemia –

People with CMML may have shortages of some blood cells, but a main problem is too many monocytes, (at least 1,000 per mm 3 ). Often, the monocyte count is much higher, causing their total white blood cell count to become very high as well. Usually there are some abnormal cells, called blasts, in the bone marrow. The amount of blasts in CMML is below 20%. Many people with CMML have enlarged spleens (an organ that lies just below the left rib cage). About 15% to 30% of people with CMML go on to develop acute myeloid leukemia, The DNA inside the abnormal cells does not have certain changes in the genes called BCR/ABL (Philadelphia chromosome), or PDGFRA and PDGRFRB. For more information about these gene changes, see How Is Chronic Myelomonocytic Leukemia Diagnosed?

Since CMML has features of both a myelodysplastic syndrome and myeloproliferative neoplasm, experts created a new category for it: myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm (myelo – bone marrow, proliferative – excessive growth, dysplastic – abnormal looking).

Is it better to have high or low monocytes?

Takeaway – Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells. They kill microbes, recycle old cells, and boost immunity. People with monocyte levels within the normal range (0.2 – 0.8 x10^9/L) tend to develop fewer infections and chronic diseases. The most common causes of high monocytes (monocytosis) are chronic infections and inflammation.

Chukwudi Eze